What is the Source
of the Increase of Works of Witchcraft? Whence comes it
that the Practice of Witchcraft hath so notably
increased?
Is
it in any way a Catholic opinion to hold that the origin
and growth of witchcraft proceed from the influence of
the celestial bodies; or from the abundant wickedness of
men, and not from the abominations of Incubi and Succubi?
And it seems that it springs from man's own wickedness.
For S. Augustine says, in Book LXXXIII, that the cause
of a man's depravity lies in his own will, whether he
sins at his own or at another's suggestion. But a witch
is depraved through sin, therefore the cause of it is
not the devil but human will. In the same place he
speaks of free-will, that everyone is the cause of his
own wickedness. And he reasons thus: that the sin of man
proceeds from free-will, but the devil cannot destroy
free-will, for this would militate against liberty:
therefore the devil cannot be the cause of that or any
other sin. Again, in the book of Ecclesiastic Dogma it
is said: Not all our evil thoughts are stirred up by the
devil, but sometimes they arise from the operation of
our own judgement.
Again, if the
stars were not the cause of human actions both good and
bad, Astrologers would not so frequently foretell the
truth about the result of wars and other human acts:
therefore they are in some way a cause.
Again, the
stars influence the devils themselves in the causing of
certain spells; and therefore they can all the more
influence men. Three proofs are adduced for this
assumption. For certain men who are called Lunatics are
molested by devils more at one time than at another; and
the devils would not so behave, but would rather molest
them at all times, unless they themselves were deeply
affected by certain phases of the Moon. It is proved
again from the fact the Necromancers observe certain
constellations for the invoking of devils, which they
would not do unless they knew that those devils were
subject to the stars.
And this is
also adduced as a proof; that according to S. Augustine
(de Ciuitate Dei, 10), the devils employ certain
lower bodies, such as herbs, stones, animals, and
certain sounds and voices, and figures. But since the
heavenly bodies are of more potency than the lower
bodies, therefore the stars are a far greater influence
than these things. And witches are the more in
subjection in that their deeds proceed from the
influence of those bodies, and not from the help of evil
spirits. And the argument is supported from I Kings
xvi, where Saul was vexed by a devil, but was calmed
when David struck his harp before him, and the evil
departed.
But
against this. It is impossible to produce an effect
without its cause; and the deeds of witches are such
that they cannot be done without the help of devils, as
is shown by the description of witches in S. Isidore, Ethics
VIII. WItches are so called from the enormity of their
magic spells; for they disturb the elements and confound
the minds of men, and without any venomous draught, but
merely by virtue of incantations, destroy souls, etc.
But this sort of effects cannot be caused by the
influence of the stars through the agency of a man.
Besides,
Aristotle says in his Ethics that it is difficult
to know what is the beginning of the operation of
thought, and shows that it must be something extrinsic.
For everything that begins from a beginning has some
cause. Now a man begins to do that which he wills; and
he begins to will because of some pre-suggestion; and if
this is some precedent suggestion, it must either
proceed from the infinite, or there is some extrinsic
beginning which first brings a suggestion to a man.
Unless indeed it be argued that this is a matter of
chance, from which it would follow that all human
actions are fortuitous, which is absurd. Therefore the
beginning of good in the good is said to be God, Who is
not the cause of sin. But for the wicked, when a man
begins to be influenced towards and wills to commit sin,
there must also be some extrinsic cause of this. And
this can be no other than the devil; especially in the
case of witches, as is shown above, for the stars cannot
influence such acts. Therefore the truth is plain.
Moreover,
that which has power over the motive has also power over
the result which is caused by the motive. Now the motive
of the will is something perceived through the sense or
the intellect, both of which are subject to the power of
the devil. For S. Augustine says in Book 83: This evil,
which is of the devil, creeps in by all the sensual
approaches; he places himself in figures, he adapts
himself to colours, he attaches himself to sounds, he
lurks in angry and wrongful conversation, he abides in
smells, he impregnates with flavours and fills with
certain exhalations all the channels of the
understanding. Therefore it is seen that it is in the
devil's power to influence the will, which is directly
the cause of sin.
Besides,
everything which has a choice of two ways needs some
determining factor before it proceeds to the action. And
the free-will of man has the choice between good and
ill; therefore when he embarks upon sin, it needs that
he is determined by something towards ill. And this
seems chiefly to be done by the devil, especially in the
actions of witches, whose will is made up for evil.
Therefore it seems that the evil will of the devil is
the cause of evil will in man, especially in witches.
And the argument may be substantiated thus; that just as
a good Angel cleaves to good, so does a bad Angel to
evil; but the former leads a man into goodness,
therefore the latter leads him into evil. For it is,
says Dionysius, the unalterable and fixed law of
divinity, that the lowest has it cause in the highest.
Answer.
Such as contend that witchcraft has its origin in the
influence of the stars stand convicted of three errors.
In the first place, it is not possible that it
originated from astromancers and casters of horoscopes
and fortune-tellers. For if it is asked whether the vice
of witchcraft in men is caused by the influence of the
stars, then, in consideration of the variety of men's
characters, and for the upholding of the true faith, a
distinction must be maintained; namely, that there are
two ways in which it can be understood that men's
characters can be caused by the stars. Either completely
and of necessity, or by disposition and contingency. And
as for the first, it is not only false, but so heretical
and contrary to the Christian religion, that the true
faith cannot be maintained in such an error. For this
reason, he who argues that everything of necessity
proceeds from the stars takes away all merit and, in
consequence, all blame: also he takes away Grace, and
therefore Glory. For uprightness of character suffers
prejudice by this error, since the blame of the sinner
redounds upon the stars, licence to sin without
culpability is conceded, and man is committed to the
worship and adoration of the stars.
But as for
the contention that men's characters are conditionally
varied by the disposition of the stars, it is so far
true that is it not contrary to reason or faith. For it
is obvious that the disposition of a body variously
causes many variations in the humours and character of
the soul; for generally the soul imitates the
complexions of the body, as it said in the Six
Principles. Wherefore the choleric are wrathful, the
sanguine are kindly, the melancholy are envious, and the
phlegmatic are slothful. But this is not absolute; for
the soul is master of its body, especially when it is
helped by Grace. And we see many choleric who are
gently, and melancholy who are kindly. Therefore when
the virtue of the stars influences the formation and
quality of a man's humours, it is agreed that they have
some influence over the character, but very distantly:
for the virtue of the lower nature has more effect on
the quality of the humours than has the virtue of the
stars.
Wherefore S.
Augustine (de Ciuitate Dei, V), where he resolves
a certain question of two brothers who fell ill and were
cured simultaneously, approves the reasoning of
Hippocrates rather than that of an Astronomer. For
Hippocrates answered that it is owing to the similarity
of their humours; and the Astronomer answered that it
was owing the identity of their horoscopes. For the
Physician's answer was better, since he adduced the more
powerful and immediate cause. Thus, therefore, it must
be said that the influence of the stars is to some
degree conducive to the wickedness of witches, if it be
granted that there is any such influence over the bodies
that predisposes them to this manner of abomination
rather than to any other sort of works either vicious or
virtuous: but this disposition must not be said to be
necessary, immediate, and sufficient, but remote and
contingent.
Neither is
that objection valid which is based on the book of the
Philosophers on the properties of the elements, where it
says that kingdoms are emptied and lands depopulated at
the conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn; and it is argued
from this that such things are to be understood as being
outside the free-will of men, and that therefore the
influence of the stars has power over free-will. For it
is answered that in this saying the Philosopher does not
mean to imply that men cannot resist the influence of
that constellation towards dissensions, but that they
will not. For Ptolemy in Almagest says: A wise
man will be the master of the stars. For although, since
Saturn has a melancholy and bad influence and Jupiter a
very good influence, the conjunction of Jupiter and
Saturn can dispose men to quarrels and discords; yet,
through free-will, men can resist that inclination, and
very easily with the help of God's grace.
And again it
is no valid objection to quote S. John Damascene where
he says (Book II, chap. vi) that comets are often the
sign of the death of kings. For it will be answered that
even if we follow the opinion of S. John Damascene,
which was, as is evident in the book referred to,
contrary to the opinion of the Philosophic Way, yet this
is no proof of the inevitability of human actions. For
S. John considers that a comet is not a natural
creation, nor is it one of the stars set in the
firmament; wherefore neither its significance nor
influence is natural. For he says that comets are not of
the stars which were created in the beginning, but that
they are made for a particular occasion, and then
dissolved, by Divine command. This then is the opinion
of S. John Damascene. But God by such a sign foretells
the death of kings rather than of other men, both
because from this may arise the confusion of a kingdom.
And the Angels are more careful to watch over kings for
the general good; and kings are born and die under the
ministry of Angels.
And there is
no difficulty in the opinion of the Philosophers, who
say that a comet is a hot and dry conglomeration,
generated in the higher part of space near the fire, and
that a conjoined globe of that hot and dry vapour
assumes the likeness of a star. But unincorporated parts
of that vapour stretch in long extremities joined to
that globe, and are a sort of adjunct to it. And
according to this view, not of itself but by accident,
it predicts death which proceeds from hot and dry
infirmities. And since for the most part the rich are
fed on things of a hot and dry nature, therefore at such
times many of the rich die; among which the death of
kings and princes is the most notable. And this view is
not far from the view of S. John Damascene, when
carefully considered, except as regards the operation
and co-operation of the Angels, which not even the
philosophers can ignore. For indeed when the vapours in
their dryness and heat have nothing to do with the
generation of a comet, even then, for reasons already
set out, a comet may be formed by the operation of an
Angel.
In this way
the star which portended the death of the learned S.
Thomas was not one of the stars set in the firmament,
but was formed by an Angel from some convenient
material, and, having performed it office, was again
dissolved.
From this we
see that, whichever of those opinions we follow, the
stars have no inherent influence over the free-will, or,
consequently, over the malice and character of men.
It is to be
noted also that Astronomers often foretell the truth,
and that their judgements are for the most part
effective on one province or one nation. And the reason
is that they take their judgements from the stars,
which, according to the more probable view, have a
greater, though not an inevitable, influence over the
actions of mankind in general, that is, over one nation
or province, than over one individual person; and this
because the greater part of one nation more closely
obeys the natural disposition of the body than does one
single man. But this is mentioned incidentally.
And the
second of the three ways by which we vindicate the
Catholic standpoint is by refuting the errors of those
who cast Horoscopes and Mathematicians who worship the
goddess of fortune. Of these S. Isidore (Ethics,
VIII. 9) says that those who cast Horoscopes are so
called from their examination of the stars at nativity,
and are commonly called Mathematicians; and in the same
Book, chapter 2, he says that Fortune has her name from
fortuitousness. and is a sort of goddess who mocks human
affairs in a haphazard and fortuitous manner. Wherefore
she is called blind, since she runs here and there with
no consideration for desert, and comes indifferently to
good and bad. So much for Isidore. But to believe that
there is such a goddess, or that the harm done to bodies
and creatures which is ascribed to witchcraft does not
actually proceed from witchcraft, but from that same
goddess of Fortune, is sheer idolatry: and also to
assert that witches themselves were born for that very
purpose that they might perform such deeds in the world
is similarly alien to the Faith, and indeed to the
general teaching of the Philosophers. Anyone who pleases
may refer to S. Thomas in the 3rd book of his Summa
of the Faith against the Gentiles. question 87, etc.,
and he will find much to this effect.
Nevertheless
one point must not be omitted, for the sake of those who
perhaps have not great quantity of books. It is there
noted that three things are to be considered in man,
which are directed by three celestial causes, namely,
the act of the will, the act of the intellect, and the
act of the body. The first of these is governed directly
and soley by God, the second by an Angel, and the third
by a celestial body. For choice and will are directly
governed by God for good works, as the Scripture says in
Proverbs xxi: The heart of the king is in the
hand of the Lord; he turneth it whithersoever he will.
And it says “the heart of the king” to signify that,
as the great cannot oppose His will, so are others even
less able to do so. Also S. Paul says: God who causeth
us to wish and to perform that which is good.
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